Anesthesia in yak (Bos grunniens)

		The Department of Surgery and Radiology, Palampur has pioneered the research in anesthesia in yaks. The Yak belongs to the order Artiodactyla, the sub family bovine of family bovidae. Yak keeping has been an important survival strategy for nomads and mountain agriculturists. The chemical restraint, general and regional anesthetic techniques has been extensively studied for the first time in the Department of Surgery and Radiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Palampur.

Recommendations for chemical restraint and general anesthesia in yaks

Acepromazine maleate @ 0.15mg/kg, I/V can be safely used for tranquilization, immobilization and chemical restraint of yaks for minor manipulations.

Diazepam @0.5 mg/kg, I/V can be safely used for making the yaks tractable for examination and minor procedures.

Xylazine @0.22mg/kg, I/M can safely be used as a sedative analgesic for short term procedures.

Detomidine hydrochloride@ 0.025mg/kg. I/V is agood sedative for yaks with analgesia remaining for 15-20 minutes.

Excellent sedation and analgesia for more than one hour can be achieved in yaks using medetomindine hydrochloride @70µg/kg , I/M.

Atipamezole @ 70µg/kg , I/V provides is factory reversal of medetomidine induced sedation.

Intravenous balanced anesthesia can be achieved in yaks by using a combination of acepromazine maleate (0.15mg/kg,I/V) and chloromag (1:1, 6%, I/V, ‘To effect”). This combination can safely be used to carry out many surgical procedures in yaks as it provided good muscle relaxation, analgesia and narcosis for 30-45 minutes, The recovery from anesthesia is smooth.

Recommendations for regional anesthesia in yak

1. Cornual nerve block:

The horn of yak was chiefly innervated by the corneal nerve (lacrimal-ophthalmic-trigeminal)which had two distinct branches in temporal fossa. A caudal branch of auriculopalpebral nerve also reached to the base of horn. Eight ml of analgesic is to beinjected mid way between base of horn and lateral canthus of the eye blocks the dorsal and ventral branches of the corneal nerve. The onset of analgesia and return of sension occurrs 7.89 ± 0.54 and 74.55 ± 4.09 minutes respectively after the injection of the analgesic. The analgesia remained for 66.67 ± 3.91 minutes.

2. Auriculopalpebral nerve block:

The auriculopalpebral nerve across from the dorsal buccal nerve of facial nerve. As it reaches in the temporal fossa it forms a superficial temporal plexus. The nerve then sent rami to the upper eye lid at the lateral canthus and to the lower eye lid. Five ml of analgesic injected, blocks the palpebral supply after 7.89 ± 0.54 minutes of the injection resulting into akinesia of the lower eye lid and hypokinesia of the upper eye lid towards lateral canthus. the motor reflex remains blocked for 125.55 ± 4.12 minutes. The blinking of the eye lids resums after 132.33 ± 4.84 minutes.

3. Petersons nevre block:

The motor supply to the muscles of eye ball came through the oculomotor, trochlear and abducent nerves. Ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve which enters through the foramen orbitorotundum furnishes sensory innervations to them. Fifteen ml of the analgesic deposited close to the foramen orbitorotundum by penetrating the needle between the vertical ramus of the mandible (caudally) and supraorbital process of the zygomatic arch (rostrally) fixes the eye ball (movement) and produces complete desensitization after 11.71 ± 0.75 minutes of injection. The analgesia remaines for 85 to 110 minutes.

4. Paravertebral nerve block:

The flank area in yak was innervated by the last two thoracic (t-13, t-14) and first two lumber (L-1, L-2) spinal nerves. four ml of the analgesic infiltrated at the origin of nerve superficially and 5 ml deeply blocks the respective branches of flank area. The onset of analgesia occurred at 2.55 ± 0.24 minutes in upper flank and 4.00 ± 0.33 minutes in the lower flank. The duration of analgesia was 112.22 ± 4.50 and 56.67 ± 3.12 minutes respectively in these areas. Rumenotomy can successfully be performed through upper flank incision.

5. Lumbar epidural block:

The yak has 14 thoracic and 5 lumber vertebrae. The lumber spines are straight. the interaricual space is significant and approachable from dorsal side. The first interlumber space was chosen for the lumber epidural analgesia. Seven ml of analgesic isintroduced. the analgesia was induced within 13.28 ± 0.92 minutes in upper flank and 16.43 ± 0.84 minutes in lower flank bilaterally with return of sensation in 99.71 ± 4.15 minutes and 91,43 ± 3.48 minutes respectively post injection. The duration of analgesia remaines for 75.00 ± 3.27 minutes and 86.43 ± 3.73 minutes in the lower flank and para lumber fossa respectively. Laparotomy can be performed through left flank successfully.

6. Caudal epidural nerve block:

The spinal cord terminats at 2nd sacral vertebra and a large interarcual gap occurrs between the saccrococcygeal and first inter-coccygeal articulations. It provides the ideal site for caudal epidural analgesia. Four ml of the analgesic is deposited in the first intercoccygeal space for obtaining the epidural analgesia. The analgesic effect appeares in tail and perineum within 1 to 3 minutes of the injection, which persists for 110 ± 3.02, 52 ± 4.08 and 77.2 ± 2.78 minutes at the base of the tail, tip of the tail and perineum respectively.

7. Brachial plexus block:

The brachial plexus of yak is formed by union of the ventral branches of C-6, C-7, C-8, T-1 and T-2 spinal nerves. The nerve roots exit through the scalene and forming the plexus in synsarcosis. eleven nerves arise from the plexus which innervates the thoracic limb and ventral and lateral parts of the thoracic wall. The roots of the brachial plexus were approached from the point of the scapulo-humeral joint. The needle is inserted 7 to 8 cm straight between the shoulder and the chest wall and 40 ml of the analgesic was deposited to block the middle, dorsal and ventral roots of the plexus. The onset of the analgesia was observed 12.57 ± 0.92, 16.00 ± 1.00 and 16.86 ± 0.80 minutes in the antebrachium, metacarpal and digital regions. the analgesia remains for 39 ± 2.54, 35.00 ± 2.44 and 32.14 ± 1.84 minutes respectively in these regions.

8. Ring block of metacarpus and metatarsus:

The manus region in yak is innervated by the branches of ulnar, median and radial nerves and the pes region was innervated by the tibial, fibular, saphenoius and posterior cutaneous nerves. the ring block is made at the proximal one third of metacarpus/metatarsus by infiltrating 20ml of analgesic under the skin as far as bone forming a ring. The onset of analgesia was observed 4.33 ± 0.41 and 6.00 ± 0.41 minutes, duration of analgesia 78.89 ± 3.61 and 71.11 ± 3.09 minutes and return of sensation 83.22 ± 3.68 and 77.00 ± 3.14 minutes after the injection of the analgesic in metacarpal and digital regions respectively. In the hind limb, the analgesia was induced in 4.22 ± 0.36 and 5.67 ± 0.44 minutes, and remained for 80.00 ± 4.33 and 68 ± 3.89 minutes in the metatarsal and digital regions respectively.

Anesthesia in Neonatal Calves

Sedative, clinic biochemical and cardiopulmonary effects of preanesthetics and general anesthetics in neonatal calves
Summary Bovines neonate anaesthesia

S.No.	Name of the preanaesthetics/sedative/tranquillizer/ Surgical anaesthetic combination	Dose rate	Route of administration	Type of Effect
1	Atropine sulfate	0.04 mg/kg	Subcutaneously	Anticholinergic
2	Xylazine hydrochloride	0.22 mg/kg	Intramuscularly	Sedation
3	Diazepam	0.3 mg/kg	Intravenously	Tranquillization
4	Triflupromazine hydrochloride	0.5 mg/kg	Intravenously	Tranquillization
5	Acepromazine maleate	0.75 mg/kg	Intravenously	Tranquillization
6	Detomidine hydrochloride	0.02 mg/kg	Intramuscularly	Sedation
7	Chloral hydrate, 4% solution	7.5gm/100kg	Intravenously	Narcosis
8	Chloral hydrate +magnesium sulfate (Chloral-mag), 1:1, 6% solution	10gm/100kg	Intravenously	Narcosis
9	Chloral hydrate +magnesium sulfate (Chloral-mag), 1:1, 6% solution 10 min later, Thiopentone sodium, 5%	10gm/100kg 15mg/kg'to effect'	Intravenously Intravenously	General anaesthesia
10	Xylazine hydrochloride plus Ketamine hydrochloride	0.22mg/kg single 5mg/kg syringe	Intramuscularly	Balanced surgical anaesthesia
11	Detomidine hydrochloride plus Ketamine hydrochloride	0.02 mg/kg single 7.5 mg/kg syringe	Intramuscularly	Balanced surgical anaesthesia
12	Medetomidine hydrochloride	0.01 mg/kg	Intramuscularly	Sedation
13	Atropine sulfate 10 min later, Medetomidine hydrochloride plus Ketamine hydrochloride	0.04 mg/kg 0.015mg/kg single syringe 10mg/kg	Subcutaneously Intramuscularly	Balanced surgical anaesthesia
14	Atropine sulfate plus Diazepam 10 min later, Thiopentone sodium 5%	0.04 mg/kg 0.3 mg/kg 15 mg/kg ‘To effect’	Subcutaneously Intravenously Intravenously	General anaesthesia

Anesthesia in Equines

Anesthesia in Spiti ponies

		Spiti ponies are high altitude small and stocky breed of equines which are found in cold deserts. These animals are the lifeline of the snow clad terrain. They are mainly used for transportation of goods. The Department of surgery and radiology has pioneered the need based anesthesia work in these animals as they are frequently presented for castration and other musculoskeletal disorders.

"Recommendations for Anesthesia in Spiti ponies

Xylazine Hcl @ 2mg/kg, BW. I/V, produces good sedation with optimal muscle relaxation but without surgical anesthesia in Spiti ponies in the range of 30-45 minutes.

Chloral hydrate 6% @ 5gm/50 kg, BW, I/V with premedication of Triflupromazine (100mg, I/m) produces good muscle relaxation and adequate narcosis.

Detomodine Hcl 60µg /kg , BW, I/V produces satisfactory sedation and analgwesia with fair muscle relaxdation in Spiti ponies and Atipamezole in the same dose rate I/V effectively reverses the action of the detomidine.

Clinical evaluation of xylazine or detomidine in combination with butorphanol, guaifenesin and ketamine for total intravenous anaesthesia in equines.

Anaesthetic combination of xylazine (1.1 mg/kg), butorphanol (0.02 mg/kg), guaifenesin 5% (20 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.2 mg/kg) provides surgical anaesthesia for 23.33±2.57minutes and can safely be used for TIVA in equines under field conditions.

Anaesthetic combination of detomidine (0.02mg/Kg), butorphanol (0.01 mg/kg), guaifenesin 5% (20 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.0 mg/kg) provides surgical anaesthesia for 22.57±1.48min can safely be used for TIVA in equines under field conditions.

Clinical evaluation of continuous maintenance anaesthesia using guaifenesin or diazepam combined with xylazine and ketamine in equines

Groups	Induction	Maintenance
DKX (Group I) (n=14)	Xylazine @ 1.1 mg/kg BW, IV & Ketamine @ 2.2 mg/kg BW, IV.	Diazepam 25mg, Xylazine 250mg & Ketamine 500mg in 500 ml normal saline as continuous intravenous drip infusion @ 2.2 ml /kg/ hr.
GKX (Group II) (n=14)	Xylazine @ 1.1 mg/kg BW, IV & Ketamine @ 2.2 mg/kg BW, IV.	Guaifenesin 25g, Xylazine 250mg & Ketamine 500 mg in 500 ml normal saline as continuous intravenous drip infusion @ 2.2 ml /kg/ hr.

Duration of Anaesthesia was 60.71± 4.63 minutes and 64.42 ± 5.21 minutes in DKX and GKX groups respectively.

Excellent quality of muscle relaxation was observed in the equines of GKX group. The quality of analgesia was comparable at 15 and 30min intervals in both the groups, but it was excellent in GKX group at 45 and 60min post induction.

The quality of recovery was excellent in GKX group.

The GKX anaesthesia was marginally economical as compared to DKX anaesthesia.

Anesthesia in Canine

A. Clinical evaluation of dexmedetomidine-butorphanol or xylazine-butorphanol in ketamine induced and halothane anaesthetized dogs

There was a positive interaction, additive or synergistic between butorphanol-xylazine or butorphanol-dexmedetomidine with respect to ketamine and halothane sparing effects. The interaction allowed the same depth of anaesthesia, potentially limiting the intensity of their individual side effects in atropinized dogs.

The combination of butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg I/M), xylazine (1mg/kg I/V) reduced the induction dose of ketamine to 3.7 mg/kg and spared the maintenance concentration of halothane to 2 per cent.

The combination of butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg I/M), dexmedetomidine (375 µg/m2 I/V) reduced the induction dose of ketamine to 2.9 mg/kg and spared the maintenance concentration of halothane to 1.26 per cent.

B. Clinical evaluation of propofol and ketamine as induction agents in midazolam – fentanyl premedicated and halothane anaesthetized dogs

Premedication with fentanyl (5 µg/kg, i/m) and midazolam (0.3 mg/kg, i/v) led to induction dose rate of 6.22 ± 0.29 mg/kg of ketamine (i/v); and maintenance with halothane at a mean vaporizer setting of 1.82 ± 0.06, for surgical anaesthesia of mean duration of 66.79 ± 5.73 minutes.

Premedication with fentanyl (5 µg/kg, i/m) and midazolam (0.3 mg/kg, i/v) led to induction dose rate of 2.64 ± 0.14 mg/kg of propofol (i/v); and maintenance with halothane at a mean vaporizer setting of 1.99 ± 0.06 for surgical anaesthesia of mean duration of 68.08 ± 6.09 minutes

Arthritis in yak

Arthritis in Yaks

Yak being fast aggressive and sure-footed animal of hilly and difficult terrain is exposed to many traumatic injuries; the spectrum of traumatic lesions varies from simple wounds to severe musculoskeletal disorders. Arthritis is one of the commonest conditions encountered, which affects the structural and functional continuity of the animal. Traumatic arthritis is the major affection, which incapacitates the animals and incurs heavy economic losses to the highland pastoralists. Therefore present study was planned to deal with the diagnosis and treatment of arthritis in yaks.

Recommendations for treatment of traumatic arthritis

The fresh autogenous synovial fluid transfusion into arthritic animals has a positive therapeutic effect in decreasing lameness, increasing the joint flexion, relative viscosity and mucin precipitate quality and helps in early recovery from traumatic aseptic arthritis.

Electrocardiography in Yaks

Electrocardiography in adult, pregnant and non pregnant yaks and yak calves was standardized using base apex lead system. One of the significant finding was non appreciable “Q” wave in all the animals.

Estimation of Lacrimal Function in Yaks

The normal lacrimal function of yak was measured using modified Schrimer tear test which was recorded in the range of 17-28mm/minute. The regional eye blocks (Auriculopalpebral alone or in combination of Peterson slightly lower the lacrimal function in yaks.